The bloody disintegration of Yugoslavia in the 1990s was contained in just four brief lessons in history textbooks for elementary and high schools.
The decade marked by the terrible consequences of the conflict in the war-torn countries of the region and leaving its mark on practically every household in Montenegro, through mobilizations, refugee columns and economic uncertainty, has been mostly covered superficially in curricula, without placing it in a broader context, and using impersonal terminology.
Numerous war crimes committed on the territory of Montenegro from 1991 to 1999 are not mentioned at all, and the attack on Dubrovnik in October 1991, a black mark in contemporary Montenegrin history, merited only one sentence.
There is only one lesson on the breakup of Yugoslavia and the wars in the textbook for the final grade of elementary school, while high school graduates are supposed to study three short lessons. In both cases, these teaching units are at the very end of the textbook, which means that they are covered at the very end of the school year, and it is not uncommon for them not to be covered at all.
Several history teachers from Montenegrin primary and secondary schools refused to tell "Vijesti", at least unofficially, how they teach about that period, what terminology they use, and how much effort they put into placing the scant facts from textbooks into a broader context.
A history teacher at a high school in the north, however, admits that he can't help but feel uneasy when it comes to a lesson about the 1990s at the end of the school year. He says that talking about that period in the classroom feels like "walking through a minefield."
"Let's not even get to that lesson, which is due in mid-May. I stick strictly to what is written in the book, I don't try to expand on it and, frankly, I'm very uncomfortable, because I'm afraid that some of the facts I remember from that period, which I would eventually communicate in more detail in the classroom, will be perceived as my personal position and 'politics'. I think that the time distance from those events is too short for them to be presented to students in a somewhat professional and unburdening way. On the other hand, I don't know what information about the 1990s students who, although high school graduates, are still children, come with, so that's also a challenge," says the teacher, who asked not to be named.
The dominant trend among the then government, as well as the opposition, was not to present Montenegro's role in this period objectively, so many events were omitted or minimized, which left significant gaps in young people's knowledge about this important historical period.
Research by the Center for Civic Education (CCE) also shows that the level and quality of teaching about war events during the last decade of the 20th century is still inadequate.
Program associate at that NGO Maja Marinović warns that “objectively speaking, these topics are almost never covered in schools in Montenegro.”
According to her, the main reason given is that these topics are at the end of the curricula for the final grades, so they simply don't get to them.
"However, more honest teachers and professors will also state that they are not satisfied with the quality of the lessons themselves, that they do not have enough knowledge or that they are not adequately trained to deal with complex and sensitive topics. CCE research confirms that the level and quality of teaching about the wars of the 90s is still inadequate. For example, according to a survey of the general population from 2025, 71,8 percent of citizens recognize that Montenegro participated in the wars of the 90s, while among young people (research from the end of 2024) this percentage is significantly lower, only 59 percent. Therefore, these data warn of the lack of knowledge among young people about the events of the 90s and the consequences of the fact that formal education does not address this topic in an appropriate manner," says Marinović.
Key events skipped and responsibility unclearly presented
When it comes to textbooks, CCE continuously points to inadequate and sparse coverage of topics, skipping key events and unclear presentation of the responsibility of actors. The findings of the organization's research from 2024 show that among young people who learned about the 90s, most of them stated that they learned about the NATO bombing of the FRY (85,5 percent) and the war in Kosovo (78 percent), "while other important events are much less represented."
It is particularly worrying, says Marinović, that a large number of young people do not know, or are not sure, whether they have learned about certain events, including the question of whether there were war crimes on the territory of Montenegro. This data, she assesses, warns of the necessity of a systematic and comprehensive approach to education about the war-torn 1990s, in order to equip young people with a critical understanding of the past and active civic action in the present.
“Analysis of textbooks shows that the period of the 90s in Montenegro is mainly presented as a time of crisis, without a clear reference to Montenegro's role in the conflicts and without considering the direct impact of the war on Montenegrin society. Not a single war crime committed on the territory of Montenegro is listed, while the attack on Dubrovnik is mentioned, but exclusively in the context of the regional conflict, without any connection to Montenegro. Only Srebrenica is adequately mentioned.”
Marinović reminds us that these are "old textbooks, some older than a decade, and the marginalization of events from the 90s in them reflects the then policy of 'not making a fuss' and 'sweeping things under the carpet'". The dominant trend among the then authorities, as well as the opposition, she says, was not to present Montenegro's role in this period objectively, so many events were omitted or minimized, which left significant gaps in young people's knowledge about this important historical period.
“The terminology is mostly restrained, without clear assessments, but also overemphasis. Srebrenica, as the only crime mentioned in some detail, is labeled as a ‘mass crime’. At the same time, the problem is the excessive emphasis on the term ‘civil war’ as a general description of the situation in the 90s. Such an incomplete and inaccurate formulation avoids a precise assessment of the aggression carried out by individual parties during the conflict. Also, the textbooks cite unverified data, such as that during the NATO bombing ‘between 1.200 and 2.500 inhabitants died’, which is not a confirmed number and creates additional confusion. Such language and approach, through relativization and euphemisms, contributes to misunderstanding of the events and hinders the development of critical thinking among students.”
Knowledge and understanding are crucial
CCE believes that "the biggest gaps in teaching the wars of the 90s and related topics in Montenegrin schools relate, primarily, to the lack of key information and the absence of quality learning methods."
Marinović reminds us that CCE has consistently pointed out that sensitive and controversial topics are not adequately presented. This does not mean, she explains, only that key data on the events of that period are missing, but also that critical thinking and other competencies in students are not developed through the existing educational approach.
"From the perspective of CCE, as well as experts involved in education and dealing with the past, it is undeniable that knowledge and understanding of the war legacy and crimes are of crucial importance in order to prevent their recurrence. Young people must understand the challenges, problems and mechanisms that shape today's Montenegrin and regional society, which requires studying the period of the 90s - the time when many of these processes emerged. It should be emphasized that the value of this knowledge also lies in developing the resilience of young generations to propaganda, manipulation and extremism, which during the breakup of the former Yugoslavia often led to a spiral of violence, social crisis and prolonged transition."
CCE, she reminds, has been working with teachers for decades, and in the past almost ten years, work has been intensified with teaching staff in the social studies subject group, where these topics can be covered, with prior training and the use of auxiliary teaching materials.
“A decade ago, the view was that teaching staff generally did not feel sufficiently qualified to teach about the sensitive topics of the wars of the 90s. Today, after a series of trainings and the availability of produced materials, the situation has improved. However, constant work and open opportunities to improve the knowledge and skills of teaching staff are necessary, which also requires the involvement of competent institutions. Teachers themselves emphasize the need for a public voice from institutions, in order to send a message that teaching these topics is important and that teaching staff who do so should be provided with support and motivation.”
Awareness formed from non-institutional sources
According to CCE research, the knowledge of young people and the general population about the wars of the 90s comes mainly from non-institutional sources - family, immediate environment, personal experiences and the media, while formal education has a significantly weaker influence. Reliance on personal narratives instead of verifiable facts, explains Marinović, is evidence of why young people's knowledge is fragmentary and often selective.
Research findings from 2025 and 2021 (general population) and 2024 (youth) show that the overwhelming majority (55 percent) did not have the opportunity to learn about this period during formal education.
More problematic than the scope of teaching in Montenegrin textbooks is the way these lessons are presented. The textbooks mainly present factual material, without substantive explanations or deeper problematization of the causes and consequences of war conflicts.
"The result is insufficient knowledge of key events, including those that took place on the territory of Montenegro. It is particularly noticeable that young people are less likely than the general population to recognize Montenegro's role in the wars of the 90s, which is an indicator of a lack of systematic, institutional knowledge," says Marinović.
But, she explains, although the 1990s often seem like a "distant past" to young people, a significant portion recognizes that this period continues to shape the society they live in. According to a 2024 survey, she reminds us, the majority of young people (79,6 percent) believe that the 1990s were important for our society.
"So, young people understand that the consequences of conflicts, transitional injustice and unresolved social divisions are still felt today. However, due to the insufficient representation of this topic in schools, only 14,4 percent of young people learned about the 90s during formal education, their interest often remains superficial. Consequently, the 90s period is simultaneously experienced as both distant history and as a period that influences contemporary social processes, but without sufficient knowledge that would enable deeper understanding and critical reflection."
In the function of shaping a "desirable historical consciousness"
Historian dr Adnan Prekic He tells "Vijesti" that "regardless of the lack of comprehensive, empirical research on teaching in the 1990s in Montenegrin schools, all existing analyses point to an insufficient representation of the content of the 1990s in curricula, as well as a superficial, decontextualized approach to this topic in Montenegrin textbooks."
This clearly indicates, he assesses, that socio-political circumstances have dominantly shaped the approach to the legacy of the 90s. It also shows, he explains, “the obvious unwillingness of political, intellectual and academic elites to openly and without political bias introduce one of the most traumatic phases of our past into the education system and pedagogical practice.”
"Specifically, in Montenegro, teaching about the 1990s has been reduced to a few short reviews on the last pages of textbooks. In the textbook for the ninth grade of elementary school, the entire story of the 1990s has been reduced to one lesson, while in the textbook for the fourth grade of high school, the 1990s are taught in three short lessons. Much more problematic than the scope of teaching in Montenegrin textbooks is the way in which these lessons are presented. The textbooks mainly present factual material, without substantive explanations and deeper problematization of the causes and consequences of the war conflicts. This is perhaps most vividly illustrated by the fact that one of the most shameful pages of Montenegrin history - the attack on Dubrovnik in 1991 - is explained in the textbook for elementary and high school with just one sentence: 'Reservists from Montenegro also participated in the JNA attack on the Dubrovnik region,'" says Prekić.
He explains that such a “decontextualized presentation of data, devoid of a serious didactic-pedagogical framework, leaves the impression that this topic is included only to formally fill out the teaching curriculum, and not to fundamentally understand a formative period of our past, which still has strong consequences for our public discourse today.”
According to historians, in post-socialist societies, such as Montenegro, textbooks and history teaching almost as a rule represent one of the key mechanisms for the institutional legitimization of the official narrative about the past.
"As such, they serve the function of shaping a 'desirable historical consciousness' that legitimizes the national goals and interests of a state, nation, or community. In this vein, one should also read the attitude towards the legacy of the 1990s and the need to present the legacy of the 1990s in a simplified and decontextualized narrative. Therefore, it should not surprise anyone why there is a feeling in Montenegro that things from the 1990s are being repeated or that they have never left our public space."
A fundamental shift in the way we study and present historical knowledge is, Prekić says, the only way to objectify our relationship to the past. The role of education in this process, he says, is crucial, and history teaching is a key instrument for developing the skills and knowledge of critical thinking, as the most reliable mechanism for a correct and rational understanding of the past.
The Ministry announces an analysis of all segments of the teaching process
The Institute for Education did not respond to "Vijesti"'s numerous questions regarding the way the Montenegrin education system deals with the wars of the 90s, including the role of Montenegro, war crimes and dealing with the past. This institution is, among other things, responsible for subject curricula, analysis and monitoring of teaching practices, and improving the quality of education...
The Ministry of Education, Science and Innovation provided a terse response to the same questions, reminding that the department "previously worked on a comprehensive strategy for a ten-year period, which envisaged the reform of education at all levels."
As she said Svetlana Drobnjak, Director General of the Directorate for Preschool and Primary Education, The Strategy will be preceded by a comprehensive analysis of all segments of the teaching process.
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