Although they are more than 1.600 kilometers apart and very different in size, Kosovo and Ukraine share a common struggle for sovereignty – one of them still feels the consequences of the war from 26 years ago, while the other is fighting against Russia to preserve its territorial integrity.
As discussions continue about what a peacekeeping force might look like in Ukraine, Kosovo's 25-year experience with international peacekeeping could provide valuable insights if a ceasefire in the war initiated by Russia were to occur in 2022.
Ivan Vojvoda, a senior fellow at the Institute for Humanities in Vienna, said that any peacekeeping mission in Ukraine must include all parties.
"All actors need to be involved, of course, the aggressor Russia, the country that was attacked Ukraine, the European Union, the US, NATO," Vojvoda told RFE/RL. "So there are many pieces of the puzzle for a successful peacekeeping mission."
"What can be learned is the need to strengthen the foundations of peace and show political will. But, of course, under fair conditions – especially for Ukraine, a sovereign European country that was attacked without reason by its nuclear-armed neighbor, Russia," Vojvoda said.
The case of Kosovo
The NATO peacekeeping mission in Kosovo, known as KFOR, was deployed in June 1999 under NATO command, after the alliance bombed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
NATO launched a military campaign to end the humanitarian crisis and ethnic cleansing of the Kosovo Albanian population carried out by Yugoslav forces led by authoritarian leader Slobodan Milošević.
After a bombing campaign and years of fighting between the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and Serbian security forces, the peacekeeping mission's goals were to maintain security, ensure freedom of movement, and support the establishment of a stable, democratic, and multiethnic Kosovo.
KFOR operates under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, which authorized an international military presence in Kosovo after the withdrawal of Serbian forces in 1999.
Although NATO initially deployed around 50.000 troops to Kosovo, the current force is significantly smaller, with approximately 4.600 personnel from 27 countries. Italy currently contributes the most troops – 1.258.
What might peacekeeping forces in Ukraine look like?
European military chiefs are meeting in Paris to discuss what a potential deployment of forces might look like. While the US is leading efforts to end the conflict, Washington insists that American troops will not be deployed on the ground.
Britain and France have expressed a willingness to provide troops, but have stressed the need for guarantees from the US. That "support" could mean military support without sending troops, or economic and logistical support.
Russia, however, rejected the idea of peacekeeping forces from European or NATO countries.
Several media outlets, including The New York Times, reported on a 31-page proposal drafted by the Geneva Center for Security Policy, which outlines what a ceasefire in Ukraine could look like.
The plan proposes establishing a 10-kilometer-wide buffer zone between the two armies, with 5.000 civilians and police patrolling the area.
According to the proposal, which was drawn up in consultation with international ceasefire and mediation experts, around 10.000 foreign troops would be needed to ensure security.
Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky said in January that if a ceasefire agreement with Russia is reached, at least 200.000 European peacekeepers would need to be deployed in Ukraine to prevent further Russian attacks.
"Otherwise," Zelensky said, "it makes no sense."
What were the main challenges of KFOR?
Kosovo was not an independent state in 1999 and did not have its own army. As Vojvoda said, the peacekeeping mission in Kosovo was absolutely crucial at the time because "things had not been resolved."
As a result, tensions often reached breaking point – such as during the 2004 riots, the largest ethnic conflict since the end of the Kosovo war in 1999. The violence was sparked by false rumors that three Albanian children had drowned as a result of Serb actions.
19 people died in the riots, including 11 Albanians and eight Serbs.
It was considered that KFOR had failed to prevent and stop large-scale violence.
"It wasn't widely publicized, but NATO troops were shooting at Albanians who were desecrating Serbian houses and churches," Vojvoda recalls.
General Holdger Kammerhoff, who was the commander of KFOR, said at the time that "proportionate force" would be used to ensure the safety of the troops.
As the Duke said, it was a great learning experience for KFOR and its commanders, who realized that the challenges were far greater than they had originally expected when they arrived in Kosovo in 1999.
"I think they've certainly reconsidered their strategy for maintaining peace and order," said the Duke.
NATO soldiers were also injured in clashes in May 2023 in Zvecan, a town in northern Kosovo. Dozens of KFOR members were injured, some seriously, in clashes with Serb protesters.
During a visit to Kosovo on March 11, NATO Secretary General Mark Rutte stressed the alliance's continued commitment to the peacekeeping mission in Kosovo. He also called on leaders in Belgrade and Pristina to accelerate dialogue, resolving outstanding issues and laying the foundation for lasting peace.
Speaking about a potential peacekeeping force in Ukraine, Rutte said that "one way to do it would be European troops in Ukraine. But there may be other ways to do it."
"I think President Trump (Donald Trump) is right: before you can keep the peace, you have to have peace. And there is no peace yet," he added.
Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008 and has been recognized by 104 UN members. After meeting with Rutte, Kosovo President Vjosa Osmani said the peacekeeping mission "demonstrates the triumph of democratic and peace-loving states when they are united around the values of freedom and human dignity."
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